The Gokturk Khaganate (also spelled Göktürk Khaganate) was a Turkic empire that existed from the 6th to the 8th century CE, covering a vast territory that included parts of modern-day China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Russia. The Gokturks were the first Turkic people to establish a powerful empire, and their rule had a significant impact on the cultural and political development of Central Asia.
Map of the first Gokturk Khaganate at its greatest extent in 576.
The Gokturk Khaganate was founded by the Ashina clan, which had previously been part of the Xianbei tribe. According to legend, the Ashina clan was descended from a mythical wolf that had mated with a heavenly blue-gray mare. The Ashina clan established itself as a powerful force in the region by forging alliances with other Turkic tribes and defeating their rivals in battle.
The first Gokturk Khaganate was established by Bumin Khan in 552 CE, with its capital at Ötüken. Under Bumin Khan and his successor, his younger brother Istämi, the Gokturks expanded their territory and consolidated their power. In 576 CE, the Gokturks defeated the Western Wei dynasty of China and established friendly relations with the Sui dynasty that succeeded it.
The Gokturk Khaganate reached the height of its power under the rule of Bilge Khan, who reigned from 716 to 734 CE. Bilge Khan implemented a series of reforms that strengthened the power of the central government and promoted the growth of agriculture and trade. He also commissioned the writing of the Orkhon inscriptions, which are among the earliest examples of written Turkic language.
After the death of Bilge Khan, the Gokturk Khaganate began to decline due to internal conflicts and external pressures from neighboring empires. In 744 CE, the Uighurs, a Turkic tribe that had previously been subject to the Gokturks, revolted and established their own empire. The Gokturks were further weakened by conflicts between rival factions and by attacks from the Tang dynasty of China.
The Gokturk Khaganate was finally destroyed in 766 CE, when it was defeated by the Tang dynasty. However, the legacy of the Gokturks lived on, as their empire served as a model for subsequent Turkic empires and played an important role in the spread of Turkic culture and language throughout Central Asia. Today, the Gokturks are recognized as an important and influential civilization in the history of Central Asia and the Turkic world.
Ghokturk fighting style
The Gokturks were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia and played an important role in the history of the region. As a nomadic people, the Gokturks relied on a variety of skills to survive, including hunting, herding, and warfare.
In terms of their fighting style, the Gokturks were known for their excellent horsemanship and their ability to shoot arrows while riding. They were also skilled in hand-to-hand combat, using weapons such as swords, spears, and axes.
One of the most famous weapons used by the Gokturks was the composite bow, which was made from layers of different materials such as wood, horn, and sinew. The composite bow was highly effective in battle, allowing the Gokturks to shoot arrows with great accuracy and power from horseback.
The Gokturks were also known for their use of tactics in battle, such as feints and ambushes. They were skilled at using terrain to their advantage, and were able to adapt to different environments and situations.
Overall, the Gokturks were a formidable force on the battlefield, and their fighting style played an important role in their success as a nomadic people.
The Uighur people are a Turkic ethnic group who primarily live in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of China, as well as in other parts of Central Asia. The Uighurs have a rich cultural and linguistic heritage that dates back over a thousand years.
Historically, the Uighurs were originally part of the Gokturk Khaganate, a powerful Turkic state that existed from the 6th to the 8th century. Over time, the Uighurs became more independent and established their own kingdom, which lasted from the 8th to the 9th century. In the centuries that followed, the Uighurs were ruled by various dynasties and empires, including the Tang and Mongol empires.
The Uighur language is a member of the Turkic language family and is closely related to other Turkic languages such as Turkish, Uzbek, and Kazakh. It is written using a modified version of the Arabic script known as the Uighur Arabic alphabet.
In recent years, there has been growing attention on the situation of the Uighur people in China, particularly with regard to their human rights and cultural identity. The Chinese government has been accused of implementing policies that seek to suppress and assimilate the Uighur population, including forced labor, mass detention, and cultural erasure.
Despite these challenges, there has also been a resurgence of Uighur culture and language in recent years, as Uighur activists and scholars work to preserve their heritage and promote their language and traditions. This has included efforts to document and record Uighur literature, music, and art, as well as to teach the Uighur language to younger generations.
However, the Chinese government has also cracked down on these efforts, with reports of Uighur language classes being shut down and Uighur cultural activities being banned. The situation remains complex and ongoing, with ongoing concerns about the treatment of the Uighur people and their ability to maintain their cultural identity in the face of government policies.
There have been reports of financial support from Turkey to the Uighur community in China, particularly in relation to providing aid and assistance to Uighur refugees who have fled to Turkey. Turkey has historically had cultural and linguistic ties to the Uighur people, as well as a shared Turkic heritage, and the country has been a vocal advocate for the rights of the Uighur people in China.
In recent years, Turkey has provided humanitarian assistance to Uighur refugees in Turkey, including food, shelter, and medical care. Turkish civil society organizations have also been involved in efforts to raise awareness about the situation of the Uighur people in China and to advocate for their human rights.
However, the Chinese government has criticized Turkey's support for the Uighur people, accusing Turkey of supporting separatism and terrorism in the Xinjiang region. This has led to tensions between the two countries, particularly in relation to Turkey's criticism of China's treatment of the Uighur people.
Here are some sample phrases in Uighur:
- Salam aleikum - Hello (literally "peace be upon you")
- Yaxshimusiz? - How are you?
- Rahmet - Thank you
- Men Uyghurman - I am Uighur
- Men ozimni Uyghur qilimen - I speak Uighur myself
- Men inglizche bilmeymen - I don't speak English
- Bashliq qaysi? - What's for breakfast?
- Kechirasiz, men izdeshdeyman - Excuse me, I'm looking for something
- Menge yahshi keldingiz - Welcome to me!
Traditional vs Modern Uighur alphabet
Uighur keyboard layout
The Uyghur alphabet is a writing system used by the Uyghur people, who primarily live in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China, as well as in other parts of Central Asia and the Middle East. The Uyghur alphabet is based on the Arabic script and includes 32 letters, with additional letters for certain sounds in Uyghur that are not found in Arabic.
In 1949, the Chinese government introduced a modified version of the Uyghur alphabet using the Latin script, which is still used today in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and is commonly known as the New Uyghur Alphabet. The New Uyghur Alphabet has 26 letters, with additional letters for certain Uyghur sounds that are not found in the standard Latin alphabet.
Both the traditional Arabic-based Uyghur alphabet and the Latin-based New Uyghur Alphabet are used for writing the Uyghur language, which is a member of the Turkic language family.
Here are the two Uyghur alphabets:
1. Traditional Uyghur Alphabet: This writing system is based on the Arabic script and includes 32 letters. The letters are written from right to left. Here are the letters of the traditional Uyghur alphabet:
2. New Uyghur Alphabet: This writing system is based on the Latin script and was introduced by the Chinese government in 1949. It includes 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet, plus additional letters for certain Uyghur sounds. The letters are written from left to right. Here are the letters of the New Uyghur Alphabet:
A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, Ç, Ö, Ü, Ş, G', Ƣ.
It's worth noting that some Uyghur language scholars and activists have called for the restoration of the traditional Uyghur alphabet, which they see as an important part of Uyghur cultural heritage.
Where to learn Uighur
Learning Uyghur can be a great way to understand the culture and history of the Uyghur people. Here are some resources that can help you learn Uyghur:
1. Uyghur Language Learning App: "Uyghur Academy" is an app that offers Uyghur language lessons, vocabulary, and grammar exercises. The app also includes audio recordings of native speakers to help you learn proper pronunciation. You can download the app on both the App Store and Google Play.
2. Online Uyghur Courses: There are several online courses available that can help you learn Uyghur. One website that offers Uyghur language learning courses is "Live Lingua", which provides both free and paid language lessons.
3. Uyghur Language Books: There are several books available that can help you learn Uyghur. Some popular Uyghur language books include "Uyghur Language Textbook" by Abdurishid Yakup and "Uyghur: An Intermediate Textbook" by Ghayrat Abliz.
4. Uyghur Language Tutors: If you prefer one-on-one instruction, there are several Uyghur language tutors available online. Websites like "Preply" and "Italki" offer Uyghur language tutors that can help you learn the language at your own pace.
I hope these resources help you in your journey to learn Uyghur!
Uighurs in the US
The Uighurs are a Turkic ethnic group who primarily live in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of China. In recent years, there has been increasing concern about the treatment of Uighurs by the Chinese government, including reports of forced labor and human rights abuses. As a result, many Uighurs have fled China, seeking asylum in other countries, including the United States.
In the United States, there is a small Uighur community, primarily centered in the Washington D.C. area. Uighurs in the U.S. have formed organizations such as the Uyghur American Association to advocate for their rights and raise awareness about the plight of Uighurs in China.
Uighurs in the U.S. have also sought to preserve their cultural heritage through events such as traditional dance performances, music concerts, and food festivals. Some Uighurs have opened restaurants and food trucks serving Uighur cuisine, which is a combination of Chinese, Turkish, and Middle Eastern influences.
Overall, the Uighur community in the U.S. is small but vibrant, and Uighurs in the U.S. are working to preserve their cultural heritage and raise awareness about the situation facing their fellow Uighurs in China.
Persian, also known as Farsi, is an Indo-European language that is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. It is the official language of Iran and is also spoken by significant numbers of people in other countries such as Iraq, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan.
As of 2021, it is estimated that there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide. Persian, also known as Farsi, is the official language of Iran, where it is spoken by the majority of the population. It is also widely spoken in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and other countries in Central Asia. Additionally, there are significant Persian-speaking communities in other parts of the world, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Germany.
Persian is written in the Persian script, which is a modified form of the Arabic script. It has 32 letters and is read from right to left. The script does not include vowels, but they are indicated by diacritical marks when necessary.
Persian has a rich literary tradition that dates back over a thousand years, with famous poets such as Rumi, Hafez, and Saadi. Persian poetry is known for its beauty, complexity, and symbolism.
In terms of grammar, Persian is a subject-object-verb language, meaning that the subject of a sentence comes first, followed by the object, and then the verb. It also has a relatively complex system of verb conjugation, with different forms for different tenses and moods.
Overall, Persian is a beautiful and complex language with a rich cultural history.
Brief Persian history
Persian history spans more than 5,000 years, beginning with the ancient civilization of Elam in the 4th millennium BCE. In the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Empire emerged under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, which became one of the largest and most powerful empires in history, encompassing much of Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of Europe.
In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Persia, ending the Achaemenid Empire. Over the next several centuries, Persia was ruled by various empires and dynasties, including the Parthians and the Sassanids.
In the 7th century CE, Arab Muslims conquered Persia and introduced Islam to the region. The Safavid Empire emerged in the 16th century, establishing Shia Islam as the state religion and promoting Persian culture and arts.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Persia was subject to European colonialism and influence, leading to economic and political instability. In 1925, Reza Shah Pahlavi established the Pahlavi dynasty and modernized the country, including the adoption of Western-style institutions and legal codes.
In 1979, the Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty, establishing an Islamic republic with a theocratic government. Since then, Iran has been subject to international sanctions and tensions with other countries, particularly regarding its nuclear program and involvement in regional conflicts.
Some common Persian phrases used in everyday conversation.
Here are some common Persian language phrases and the Persian alphabet:
- سلام (salam) - Hello
- خداحافظ (khodaa haafez) - Goodbye
- مرسی (mersi) - Thank you
- خوبی؟ (khubi?) - How are you?
- خوبم، مرسی (khobam, mersi) - I'm fine, thank you
- بله (bale) - Yes
- نه (na) - No
- لطفاً (lotfan) - Please
- معذرت میخواهم (ma'zerat mikhaaham) - I'm sorry
- خواهش میکنم (khahesh mikonam) - You're welcome
Persian Alphabet
The Persian alphabet is a modified version of the Arabic alphabet, consisting of 32 letters. Here is the Persian alphabet in order:
ا ب پ ت ث ج چ ح خ د ذ ر ز ژ س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ک گ ل م ن و ه ی
Note that some of the letters in the Persian alphabet have multiple forms depending on their position in the word. Also, some of the letters are not pronounced in the same way as they are in Arabic.
And here is the Persian alphabet with its letters and pronunciation:
ا (alef) - pronounced as a long "a" sound, like the "a" in "father".
ب (be) - pronounced as "b" sound, like the "b" in "baby".
پ (pe) - pronounced as "p" sound, like the "p" in "pepper".
ت (te) - pronounced as "t" sound, like the "t" in "table".
ث (se) - pronounced as "s" sound, like the "s" in "sun".
ج (jim) - pronounced as "j" sound, like the "j" in "jungle".
چ (che) - pronounced as "ch" sound, like the "ch" in "church".
ح (he) - pronounced as "h" sound, like the "h" in "hello".
خ (khe) - pronounced as a guttural "kh" sound, similar to the "ch" in the German word "Bach".
د (dal) - pronounced as "d" sound, like the "d" in "dog".
ذ (zal) - pronounced as "z" sound, like the "z" in "zebra".
ر (re) - pronounced as "r" sound, like the "r" in "red".
ز (ze) - pronounced as "z" sound, like the "z" in "zebra".
ژ (zhe) - pronounced as the French "j" sound, similar to the "s" in "pleasure".
س (sin) - pronounced as "s" sound, like the "s" in "sun".
ش (shin) - pronounced as "sh" sound, like the "sh" in "shoe".
ص (sad) - pronounced as a "s" sound produced further back in the mouth, like the "s" in "sir".
ض (zad) - pronounced as a "z" sound produced further back in the mouth, like the "z" in "zero".
ط (ta) - pronounced as a "t" sound produced further back in the mouth, like the "t" in "stop".
ظ (za) - pronounced as a "z" sound produced further back in the mouth, like the "z" in "zero".
ع (ein) - pronounced as a glottal stop, like the sound between the "uh" and "oh" in "uh-oh".
غ (ghain) - pronounced as a guttural "gh" sound, similar to the French "r" sound.
ف (fe) - pronounced as "f" sound, like the "f" in "fun".
ق (qaf) - pronounced as a "q" sound produced at the back of the throat, like the "q" in "Iraq".
ک (kaf) - pronounced as "k" sound, like the "k" in "kite".
گ (gaf) - pronounced as "g" sound, like the "g" in "go".
ل (lam) - pronounced as "l" sound, like the "l" in "love".
م (mim) - pronounced as "m" sound, like the "m" in "mother".
ن (noon) - pronounced as "n" sound
In the Persian language, there are four letters that have different forms depending on their position in a word. These letters are called "Persian joining letters" or "Persian connectors", and they are as follows:
1. "ی" (pronounced "ye") - This letter has two forms, the regular form and the final form. The regular form is used when the letter appears in the middle or beginning of a word, while the final form is used when the letter appears at the end of a word.
2. "و" (pronounced "vav") - This letter also has two forms, the regular form and the final form. The regular form is used when the letter appears in the middle of a word, while the final form is used when the letter appears at the end of a word.
3. "ه" (pronounced "he") - This letter has three forms, the regular form, the initial form, and the final form. The regular form is used when the letter appears in the middle of a word, the initial form is used when the letter appears at the beginning of a word, and the final form is used when the letter appears at the end of a word.
4. "ا" (pronounced "alef") - This letter has two forms, the regular form and the initial form. The regular form is used when the letter appears in the middle or end of a word, while the initial form is used when the letter appears at the beginning of a word.
It's worth noting that the Persian script is written from right to left, so the positions of the letters are reversed compared to English.
Some brief points on Persian grammar
1. Word Order: Persian has a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order. For example:
- Man ketab ra mikhanam. (I read a book.)
(Man = subject, ketab = object, mikhanam = verb)
2. Nouns: Persian nouns have no gender and no definite or indefinite articles. Plurals are formed by adding the suffix "-ha" to the singular form. For example:
- Ketab (book) -> Ketab-ha (books)
- Kudak (child) -> Kudak-ha (children)
3. Adjectives: Persian adjectives usually come after the noun they modify. Adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. For example:
- Kudak-e khoshgel (beautiful child)
(Kudak = noun, khoshgel = adjective)
4. Verbs: Persian verbs are conjugated for tense, aspect, mood, and person. There are six tenses in Persian: present, past simple, past continuous, present perfect, past perfect, and future. Verbs agree in person with the subject of the sentence. For example:
5. Pronouns: Persian pronouns have separate forms for subject, object, and possessive cases. The possessive pronouns come after the noun they modify. For example:
- Man ketab-am (My book)
(Man = possessive pronoun, ketab = noun)
6. Prepositions: Persian uses postpositions instead of prepositions. Postpositions are attached to the end of the noun or pronoun. For example:
- Dar khane (in the house)
(Dar = postposition, khane = noun)
7. Sentence structure: Persian has a flexible sentence structure, and the word order can be changed for emphasis or clarity. For example:
- Ketab-e khod ra man mikhanam. (I read my own book.)
Here's an example Persian text with grammar explanations:
Text: سلام، حال شما چطوره؟ من به تازگی به دانشگاه رفتم و در حال حاضر درس میخوانم.
Transliteration:
Salam, haal-e shomaa chetor-e? Man be taazegi be daaneshgaah raftam va dar haal-e haazer dars mikhaanam.
Translation:
Hello, how are you? I recently started going to university and I am currently studying.
Grammar explanations:
- سلام (Salam): This is a common greeting in Persian, equivalent to "hello" in English.
- حال شما چطوره؟ (Haal-e shomaa chetor-e?): This is a polite way of asking "how are you?" in Persian. "Haal" means "condition" or "state", "shomaa" is the formal plural pronoun for "you", and "chetor" means "how".
- من (Man): This is the first person singular pronoun for "I" in Persian.
- به تازگی (Be taazegi): "Be" is a preposition meaning "to" or "toward", and "taazegi" means "recently". Together, "be taazegi" means "recently".
- به دانشگاه رفتم (Be daaneshgaah raftam): "Be" means "to" or "toward", "daaneshgaah" means "university", and "raftam" is the past tense form of the verb "raftan" (to go). Together, "be daaneshgaah raftam" means "I went to university".
- در حال حاضر (Dar haal-e haazer): "Dar" means "in", "haal" means "condition" or "state", and "haazer" means "present". Together, "dar haal-e haazer" means "currently".
- درس میخوانم (Dars mikhaanam): "Dars" means "lesson" or "course", "mikhaanam" is the present tense form of the verb "khondan" (to read/study). Together, "dars mikhaanam" means "I am studying a course/lesson".
The three Persian languages -Farsi,Dari and Tajiki
Farsi, Dari, and Tajiki are all varieties of the Persian language, which is a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Each variety is spoken in a different country and has been influenced by the local languages and cultures of its region.
Farsi is the official language of Iran, where it is spoken by the majority of the population. It has a rich literary tradition and is a major language of culture and commerce in the region. Farsi has been influenced by Arabic, and many Arabic loanwords have been incorporated into the language.
Dari is one of the official languages of Afghanistan, where it is spoken by a significant portion of the population. It is very similar to Farsi and is mutually intelligible with it, although it has been influenced more by local Afghan languages such as Pashto. Dari has also borrowed many words from Arabic and Turkic languages.
Tajiki is the official language of Tajikistan and is also spoken in parts of Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and China. It has been heavily influenced by Russian, and many Russian loanwords have been incorporated into the language. Tajiki has also been influenced by local Central Asian languages such as Uzbek and Turkmen.
Despite these differences, Farsi, Dari, and Tajiki are all considered to be varieties of the Persian language and share many similarities in terms of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. Speakers of one variety can generally understand and communicate with speakers of the other varieties with relative ease.
Differences between Iranian Persian and Aghan Persian (Farsi and Dari).
Farsi and Dari are two varieties of the Persian language, which is a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Farsi is the official language of Iran, while Dari is one of the official languages of Afghanistan.
Farsi and Dari are very similar to each other, and speakers of one variety can generally understand and communicate with speakers of the other variety with relative ease. Both varieties use the same Persian script and share a large portion of their vocabulary, grammar, and syntax.
However, there are some differences between Farsi and Dari in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For example, Dari has borrowed more words from Arabic and Turkic languages than Farsi has, and it has also been influenced by the local languages of Afghanistan.
Despite these differences, Farsi and Dari are mutually intelligible and are considered to be different dialects of the same language.
Differences between Iranian Persian and Tajik Persian (Farsi and Tajiki)
Farsi and Tajiki are two closely related varieties of Persian language. They are so similar that speakers of one language can generally understand and communicate with speakers of the other language with little difficulty.
The main difference between Farsi and Tajiki is in their writing systems and some vocabulary. Farsi is written in the Arabic script, while Tajiki is written in the Cyrillic script. However, the grammar and syntax of the two languages are very similar, and most of the vocabulary is shared between them.
It is worth noting that Tajiki has been heavily influenced by Russian, especially in terms of vocabulary, while Farsi has been influenced by Arabic. Nonetheless, the two languages are still mutually intelligible to a large extent.
Poem in Farsi
Here is a short poem by the famous Persian poet Rumi with transliteration and translation:
با توام همیشه خوشم آید
ba to-am hameshe khosh-am aayad
I am always happy with you,
یاد تو باشد همیشه در دلم
yaad-e to baashad hameshe dar del-am
Your memory is always in my heart,
من همیشه دل به روی تو دارم
man hameshe del be rui-e to daar-am
I always have my heart towards you,
تو همیشه دل من را بردی
to hameshe del-e man raa bord-i
You have always taken my heart away.
How difficult is it to learn Persian for native speakers of English?
Learning Persian as a native speaker of English can be challenging, but it is definitely possible with dedication and practice. Here are some factors that may affect the difficulty of learning Persian for native English speakers:
1. Alphabet: Persian uses a different alphabet than English, which can take some time to learn.
2. Grammar: Persian grammar is different from English grammar, and includes features such as verb conjugation and noun declension that may be unfamiliar to English speakers.
3. Vocabulary: Persian vocabulary has many loanwords from Arabic and other languages that may not be familiar to English speakers.
4. Pronunciation: Persian has some sounds that are not found in English, such as the "qaf" (ق) and "ḵe" (خ) sounds, which may take some practice to master.
That being said, Persian is a logical and structured language, and it has a relatively simple verb system compared to other languages like French or German. With consistent practice and study, it is definitely possible for native English speakers to become proficient in Persian.
Some common mistakes that English speakers make when learning the Persian language
Here are some common mistakes that English speakers make when learning the Persian language:
1. Mispronouncing Persian words due to the difference in phonetics between the two languages. For example, the Persian letter "ز" is pronounced like "z" in "zebra," but English speakers may pronounce it like "s" in "sun."
2. Struggling with Persian grammar, which has a different structure than English. For example, Persian is a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, while English is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language.
3. Using the wrong word order in sentences, such as placing the object before the subject or verb.
4. Confusing similar-sounding words in Persian, such as "mard" (man) and "mardom" (people).
5. Overusing formal language, which can make conversations sound stiff and unnatural.
6. Not using the appropriate level of politeness and respect when speaking to others, which is important in Persian culture.
7. Not understanding the different levels of formality and familiarity in Persian language and using the wrong level in different situations.
8. Struggling with the Persian script and not being able to read or write in Persian.
9. Translating directly from English to Persian, which can result in awkward or incorrect sentences.
10. Not using correct pronunciation of vowels and consonants, which can affect the listener's ability to understand what is being said.
Some useful links with resources about learning the Persian language for beginners.
Here are some useful links with resources about learning Persian for beginners:
This website offers free online lessons for beginners, as well as audio and video resources to help with pronunciation and conversation practice. Their lessons are organized by level, from basic to advanced.
This website offers audio lessons that can be downloaded for free. The hosts of the podcast cover a range of topics, including grammar, vocabulary, and culture.
This website offers a variety of resources for learning Persian, including free online lessons, vocabulary lists, and grammar exercises. They also offer paid services such as private tutoring and group classes.
This website offers a free online Persian course for beginners, as well as vocabulary lists and grammar explanations. They also offer a paid subscription service that provides access to additional resources and language-learning tools.
This website offers free online lessons for beginners, as well as audio and video resources to help with pronunciation and conversation practice. Their lessons are organized by topic, such as greetings, shopping, and travel.
I hope these links are helpful! Good luck with your Persian language studies.
Best schools in Tehran to learn Persian.
Learning Persian in Tehran can be a great way to immerse yourself in Iranian culture and gain a deeper understanding of the language. Here are some of the best schools in Tehran to learn Persian for international students, along with their web links:
These schools offer a variety of Persian language programs, including beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels, as well as courses in Persian literature, culture, and history. Some of these programs also provide opportunities for cultural activities and excursions, which can be a great way to practice your language skills outside the classroom.
Universities that offer Persian language courses for heritage learners in the United States
There are several universities in the United States that offer Persian language courses for heritage learners. Here are some examples:
1. University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) - Heritage Persian Language Program: This program is designed for students who have a background in spoken Farsi but need to develop their reading and writing skills. The program offers courses from elementary to advanced levels.
2. University of Texas at Austin - Persian for Heritage Learners: This program focuses on developing the reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills of heritage learners of Persian. The program also includes cultural and literary components.
3. San Diego State University - Persian Language for Heritage Speakers: This program offers courses for heritage speakers of Persian to develop their language skills and improve their knowledge of Persian culture.
4. University of Maryland - Persian for Heritage Speakers: This program is designed for students who have a background in spoken Persian but need to develop their reading and writing skills. The program includes courses on Persian literature and culture.
5. University of California, Berkeley - Persian Language for Heritage Speakers: This program is for heritage speakers of Persian who want to improve their language skills. The program includes courses on Persian literature and culture.
Please note that these programs may have specific eligibility requirements and enrollment procedures, so it's best to check with each university for more information.
Unfortunately, very little is known about the language of the Gepids, a Germanic tribe that lived in Central Europe during the late Roman period and the early Middle Ages. The Gepids are believed to have spoken an East Germanic language, which was related to Gothic and other Germanic languages of the time.
However, there are no surviving texts or inscriptions in the Gepid language, and the few references to the Gepids in historical sources provide only limited information about their culture and language. As a result, scholars have had to rely on comparative linguistics and the study of other Germanic languages to reconstruct the possible features of the Gepid language.
Some scholars believe that the Gepid language may have been similar to the Gothic language, which is known from a number of surviving texts. However, others have suggested that the Gepid language may have had more in common with other East Germanic languages, such as Burgundian or Vandalic, which are also poorly attested. Overall, the Gepid language remains a subject of ongoing research and speculation among linguists and historians.
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and from the Pashtun diaspora abroad
region
Central Asia-South Asia
number of speakers
50 million
language family
Indo-European, Iranian branch
script
Pashto alphabet, a variant of the Perso-Arabic alphabet
official language
in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Pashto, also known as Afghani, is an Iranian language spoken primarily by the Pashtun people in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, as well as the Pashtun diaspora in various countries.
languages in Afghanistan
Pashto belongs to the Eastern Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian language family.It is estimated that the number of Pashto speakers is about 50 million worldwide.The Constitution of Afghanistan proclaims Pashto as one of the two official languages of the country (the other official language is Dari (Persian of Afghanistan)
Geographical distribution
In Afghanistan,Pashto is spoken mainly in the east,south,southwest,but also in parts of the north,west and northwest of the country.There is no precise data on the number of speakers,but it is estimated that Pashto is the first language for 35-50% of the population of Afghanistan.
Pashto is also one of the languages of Pakistan by about 12.5%,mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northwestern Balochistan as well as parts of Mianwali and Attock districts in Punjabi province.Modern communities of Pashto speakers are also found in the cities of Karachi and Hyperabad in Sindh province.
Karachi has the largest Pashtun population in the world, with 7 million ethnic Pashtuns according to some estimates.Other Pashtun-speaking communities are found in northeastern Iran, mainly in South Khorasan Province, east of Qaen, near the borders with Afghanistan and Tajikistan.Pashtun communities are also found in the northwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir as well as in Uttar Pradesh,in India.
A sizable Pashtun speaking community also exists in the Middle East, especially in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia; in the USA, the UK, Thailand, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Qatar, Sweden and Austria.
Ancient Greek is an Indo-European language primarily spoken in Greece and the Aegean region from the 9th century BCE to the 4th century CE. It is one of the most studied languages in the world and has had profound influence on literature, art, philosophy, science and culture of Western civilization.
The earliest known form of Ancient Greek is called Mycenaean Greek, which dates back to the 14th century BCE and was predominantly used in the Mycenaean civilization. The first written records of the language appear in the Linear B tablets, which were used for administrative purposes.
The Ancient Greek language is commonly divided into three main dialects:
1) Aeolic, which was mainly spoken in the northern and central Aegean islands
2) Doric, which was primarily spoken in mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus
3) Ionic, which was spoken on the western coast of Asia Minor, the Cyclades, and some parts of the Peloponnesus.
Over time, these dialects evolved into several more dialects as Ancient Greek spread across the Mediterranean and into other regions.
Ancient Greek is commonly divided into three main periods:
1) Archaic Greek (8th-6th centuries BCE) - The period when Greek literature and poetry began to gain a foothold. The Homeric epics (The Iliad and The Odyssey) were written during this period.
Sample Text:
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεὰ, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή
(Homeric Hymn to Demeter)
2) Classical Greek (5th-4th centuries BCE) - The period when democracy and philosophy became prevalent in the Greek world. Famous authors like Plato, Aristotle, and Sophocles wrote during this period.
Sample Text:
Ὦ, προστάτις καὶ σύντροφε τῶν Ἑλλήνων,
σὺ μὲν ἀρχαὶ πάσης φύσεως βαθυκόλποις,
ὄλβον ἤλασον ἀνδράσιν, ἁπασέως ἄεθλα.
(Aeschylus, Agamemnon)
3) Hellenistic Greek (3rd-1st centuries BCE) - The period when Greek civilization was widely diffused throughout the Mediterranean and the Bible was written in Greek.
In all German-speaking countries there is a bilingualism where official German is spoken alongside the local German dialect.The same is true in Switzerland with Swiss German (Schwyzerdütsch).
German speaking areas in Switzerland.
German dialects in Switzerland are spoken by the German-speaking population in both urban centres and in the countryside.
Linguistically they are not uniform and in fact many of them are more closely related to German dialects outside the country than to each other, especially to dialects of Liechtenstein, Austria and Italy and France.
The reason they are classified together is for political rather than linguistic reasons.Linguistically they are classified in the Alemannic Germanic dialects,the lower,middle and high Alemannic dialects in the Alps.
Compared to the official German of Germany, they have big differences that create a big problem in communication.Imagine that Swiss films shown in Germany are either subtitled or dubbed.
The official language of the German-speaking cantons is official German in its Swiss version which is taught in school and at first is almost a foreign language for children because of its difference from the local German dialect.
Apart from official documents,administration and commerce official German is also used in news reports.Official Swiss German is also closer to the German of Germany.
On a more informal level, e.g. on the internet, in colloquial speech, at home and on television in shows such as serials and soap operas, the local dialect is preferred.But don't imagine that the local dialects are snubbed as they are here in Greece.There they are spoken alongside official German not only without shame, but on the contrary with pride.
Some particular features of Swiss dialects are vowel clusters,different vocabulary depending on the region and loans from French and less so from Italian.For example, thank you in Switzerland is merci while in Germany it is danke.
sample of the language.
Was koschtet das? How much does it cost?
Z'tüür!
Das isch mir e chli z'tüür .This is rather expensive.
The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet and consists of 31 letters.
The letters Q (read kü or chiu), W (dublu ve), and Y (igrek=i Greek, or i grek) were officially introduced in 1982, but were unofficially used earlier.
They are only found in foreign words such as quasar, watt, and yacht. The letter K, although relatively older, is rarely used and is still considered foreign due to the fact that it only appears in nouns and international neologisms such as kilogram, broker, karate.
In cases where we have words which are borrowed directly from other languages and they are used diacritics ,the official spelling encourages their use. (München, Angoulême,etc but Istanbul instead of İstanbul).
A, a
a
Ă, ă
ă
Â, â
â
B, b
be
C, c
ce
D, d
de
E, e
e
F, f
fe / ef
G, g
ghe / ge
H, h
ha / haş
I, i
i
Î, î
î , like Turkish ı
J, j
je , like zh
K, k
/ kapa
L, l
le / el
M, m
me / em
N, n
ne / en
O, o
o
P, p
pe
Q, q
kü / chiu
R, r
re / er,ρ
S, s
se / es
Ș, ș / Ş, ş
șe / şe like sh
T, t
te
Ț, ț / Ţ, ţ
țe / ţe like ts
U, u
u
V, v
ve,
W, w
dublu ve
X, x
ics
Y, y
igrec / i grec
Z, z
ze / zet
The Romanian language
Romanian or Limba Romane (limba română) is a Romance language like Italian, French and Spanish but retains more archaic features of Latin that its other descendants have lost.
It was the native language of Vladimir Chepes aka Count Dracula or Vlad the Impaler. He was a bloodthirsty Bohemian of Wallachia and had a deadly hatred for the Turks. It is said that he had skewered over twenty thousand.
That's where the myths about Count Dracula drinking the blood of men came from.
Vlad Ţepes the Impaler or Count Dracula, voivod of Wallachia.
Along with Istro-Romanic, Vlach (Armanic, Romance and Moghlenic) is a branch of the Balkan neo-Latin languages.It is spoken by 24-28 million people, mainly in Romania and, according to some, in Moldova.
Romanian in MoldovaIn Moldova, the language is called Limba Maldovanese.According to a significant part of the Moldovan population, Moldavian is a separate language.
The differences with Moldavian are real but not so significant that there is a major divergence.For more on this read about the Moldavian language.
Relationship of Romanian with Vlach (Armanic,Romance,Moglenitic) and Istro-Romanian.Some linguists,mainly Romanians,argue that Vlach and Istro-Romanian were split off from Romanian (Dacorumanian) ,but this is not true since both are autonomous neo-Latin languages,sister languages that originated from the Eastern Balkan Roman mother tongue.
It is speculated that the cradle of Eastern Balkan Roman is the Roman province of the Dardanian Administration, south of the Danube.
From there, the neo-Latin Balkan languages broke away and each followed its own path.
An important difference between them is their borrowed vocabulary; Romanian has many Slavic words, while Vlach has many Greek words.
They share a common Latin vocabulary which in many cases is rather more archaic in Vlach.In syntax and grammar they are similar but Vlach completely lacks infinitive ,a feature that places it clearly in the southern Balkans along with Greek.
The first part of the Balkans to be conquered by the Romans was Epirus.The region of Dacia (present-day Romania) was conquered a century later.So it is logical that Latin-speaking started from the south and then expanded northwards, not the other way round as Romanian linguists claim.
vocabulary
The vocabulary of Romanian has been heavily influenced by Slavic, with the percentage of Slavic loans reaching 30 percent. Old Romanian had even more Slavic words and phrases which were replaced by Romanian words and phrases. For example, the Slavic phrase i pak ,and so, was replaced with şi apoi.
60 percent are Latin words, while the rest are words from Turkish, Greek, etc.Of the Latin words, many are French.French is the most popular foreign language in Romania.
Is it hard to learn Romanian?
No, it isn't that hard . According to the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) anyway.
Romanian is classified as a first Category language for English natives to learn regarding its difficulty.
In Category I there are the languages which are closely related to English.
While Romanian is a Romance language and English is a Germanic language Romanian can rather easily be learned because of the fact that English has a huge vocabulary of Latin origin ,about 60% or more,via Latin directly or Norman French.
Have you ever come across a language where verbs have one form and do not change according to time, number or inflection?A language that has no cases, genders and nothing agrees with anything else?Have you ever tried a language where you have to sing it to be understood?
From top to bottom: left old script, right simplified script.
Chinese (Hangyu) is the most spoken language in the world in terms of number of speakers with over a billion speakers.That's one sixth of the world's population speaking Chinese.
Listen to Mandarin, the official dialect.
dialects
Actually Chinese is not one language but a group of Chinese,Sinitic dialects/languages which in most most cases are completely different from each other.
Main dialects are Mandarin (800 million speakers),Wu (90 million),Cantonese (70 million) followed by Min (50 million).
The Chinese consider all these languages to be dialects of one language, the single Chinese language, but there are some linguists who do not agree with this and consider them to be separate languages.
the Chinese dialects
and other languages of China
When we say Chinese we usually refer to Mandarin, the official and standard language of the Chinese state which is based on the Beijing dialect and is called putonghua (the common language).
Listen to Cantonese, the native language of Chuckie Chan.
Another popular dialect is Cantonese which is also spoken in Hong Kong.The Kung Fu movies of the 80's ,which were filmed in Hong Kong, are in Cantonese.By the way, Chuckie Chan's mother tongue is Cantonese,who besides that speaks Mandarin and English.
grammar and intonation.
The grammar of Chinese is quite simple compared to the grammars of Western languages since it has no cases,endings,genders,words do not change based on time,etc.Words are usually monosyllabic and disyllabic.
Chinese is a tonal language,unusual for western languages and has four stresses.That is,the same word has different meanings because it is stressed differently:
1st tone: ma1 or mā mother
2nd tone: ma2 or má
3rd tone: ma3 or mǎ horse
4th tone: ma4 or mà argue
alphabet
The Chinese alphabet has nothing to do with the concept of an alphabet as we know it in our language.Our alphabet has 24 phonetic symbols, while the Chinese alphabet has no letters but ideograms, each of which has a different phonetic value and there are thousands of them.For example, to be able to read a Chinese newspaper with relative ease, one must know 2 to 3 thousand ideograms.
A Latin-based alphabet is also used to write the Chinese language, with the use of symbols or numbers next to the letter to represent the Chinese tones, which is called pinyin.Pinyin is also taught in the early grades of school, alongside the ideograms, since it is simpler and more accurate.
The Tibetan alphabet was created in the 7th century A.D. and is based on Indian alphabets of the time.The emperor of Tibet sent a minister, Thonmi Sambhota, to India to gather information about Buddhism.
On his arrival in India,he did not confine himself to simply gathering information but using the region's model alphabets,such as the devanagari,he created the first script for Tibetan,which he brought home with him.
The script has two forms, one used in the press, books, newspapers etc and a handwritten one which is the daily script of the Tibetans.
Today the writing does not reflect the spoken language because the pronunciation of the Tibetan language has changed.
The official Tibetan language is based on the dialect of Lhasa ,the capital of the Tibetan Autonomous Chinese Province and is called Utsang.
Utsang together with the dialects Amdo and Ham form the Tibetan language family.
