Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek: Language, History, and Legacy

Text-to-Speech:

Ancient Greek is an Indo-European language spoken from the 14th century BCE to the 4th century CE. It shaped Western civilization through literature, philosophy, science, and law.

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1. Mycenaean Greek (14th–12th centuries BCE)

The earliest attested Greek, written in Linear B on clay tablets for palace records. Deciphered in 1952.

Sample Text

𐀷𐀙𐀰 wa-na-ka / 𐀨𐀐𐀯 ra-wa-ke-ta

wanax / lāwāgetās

"king" / "military leader"

Vocabulary

𐀷𐀙𐀰

wa-na-ka

wanax — king

𐀡𐀲𐀙

po-ti-ni-ja

potnia — lady, goddess

𐀒𐀵𐀊

ko-to-ni-ja

ktoiniā — landholding

Grammar: Preserves Indo-European dual, instrumental -pi, labiovelars (q-). Early noun stems.

2. Archaic Greek (8th–6th centuries BCE)

Oral tradition → written epics. Greek alphabet invented (~800 BCE). Homer and Hesiod.

Sample: Iliad Opening

Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί᾽ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε᾽ ἔθηκε...

Mênin áeide, theá, Pēlēïádeō Akhilêos
ouloménēn, hḕ myrí’ Akhaioîs álge’ éthēke...

"Sing, goddess, the wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus,
the accursed wrath which brought countless pains upon the Achaeans..."

Vocabulary

μῆνις

mênis

divine wrath

ἑλώρια

helṓria

spoils

κύων

kýōn

dog (insult)

Grammar: Dactylic hexameter, digamma (ϝ), dual number, tmesis.

3. Classical Greek (5th–4th centuries BCE)

Golden age of Athens: democracy, tragedy, philosophy. Attic prose dominates.

Sample: Aeschylus, Agamemnon

Ὦ προστάτις καὶ σύντροφος Ἑλλήνων...
ὄλβον ἤλασας ἀνδράσιν...

Ô prostátis kaì sýntrophos Hellḗnōn...
ólbon ḗlasas andrásin...

"O guardian and companion of the Greeks...
you drove prosperity to men..."

Vocabulary

προστάτις

prostátis

patroness

ὄλβος

ólbos

prosperity

ἄεθλον

áethlon

prize

Grammar: Attic -ᾱ → -η, contract verbs, optative, participles.

4. Hellenistic & Koine Greek (3rd BCE – 4th CE)

Greek becomes world language after Alexander. Koine used in Bible, papyri.

Sample: Callimachus

Εἰδώλοισιν ἀμήχανον οἶκτον...
ἑκάεργον ἔρως...

Eidṓloisin amḗkhanon oîkton...
hekáergon érōs...

"It is impossible to pity phantoms...
love that keeps afar..."

Vocabulary

εἴδωλον

eídōlon

image, phantom

ἀμήχανος

amḗkhanos

helpless

Ἀμαζών

Amazṓn

Amazon

Grammar: Simplified: no dual, rare optative, periphrastic tenses.