Sack of Rome by Alaric (410 AD).

The Visigoths at the Gates. Sack of Rome 410 AD.

Sack of Rome

The city was sacked by the Visigothic king Alaric during the Gothic War of 395-410 between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire ⁴. 

Alaric and his army entered Rome on August 24, 410 AD, and sacked the city for three days ². This event is considered a major turning point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire ².

The sack of Rome in 410 AD was a cataclysmic event that shocked contemporaries, friends, and foes of the Empire alike. 

Sack of Rome 410

After several generations of Roman superiority and arrogance, the Visigothic "barbarian" mercenaries reminded their erstwhile masters of where the real military power lay ⁸. 

The Germanic tribes had undergone massive technological, social, and economic changes after four centuries of contact with the Roman Empire. 

From the first to fourth centuries, their populations, economic production, and tribal confederations grew, and their ability to conduct warfare increased to the point of challenging Rome ²⁸.

The Goths, one of the Germanic tribes, had invaded the Roman Empire on and off since 238 AD ². But in the late 4th century, the Huns began to invade the lands of the Germanic tribes and pushed many of them into the Roman Empire with greater fervor ²⁸. 

In 376 AD, the Huns forced many Therving Goths led by Fritigern and Alavivus to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Soon after, starvation, high taxes, hatred from the Roman population, and governmental corruption turned the Goths against the empire. 

The Goths rebelled and began looting and pillaging throughout the eastern Balkans. A Roman army led by Eastern Roman Emperor Valens marched to put them down. At the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, Fritigern decisively defeated Emperor Valens who was killed in battle ²⁸.

Peace was eventually established in 382 AD when new Eastern Emperor Theodosius I signed a treaty with Thervings who would become known as Visigoths. 

The treaty made Visigoths subjects of the empire as foederati. They were allotted northern part of dioceses of Dacia and Thrace, and while land remained under Roman sovereignty and Visigoths were expected to provide military service, they were considered autonomous ²⁸. 

Alaric was declared king by a group of Visigoths around 391 AD. He led his people on a series of campaigns against Rome before finally sacking it in 410 AD ⁴. 

(1) Alaric | Barbarian King, Visigoth Leader | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alaric.

(2) Sack of Rome (410) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28410%29.

(3) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-410.

(4) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-1527.

(5) Sack of Rome (1527) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%281527%29.

(6) . https://bing.com/search?q=who+sacked+Rome.

(7) Vandal | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vandal-Germanic-people.

(8) Who were the Vandals, the 'barbarians' who sacked Rome?. https://www.livescience.com/who-were-the-vandals.

(9) The Sack of Rome: Its Significance and Who Is to Blame - Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/34933425/The_Sack_of_Rome_Its_Significance_and_Who_Is_to_Blame.

(10) Six Infamous Sacks of Eternal City — Rome - Medium. https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/6-legendary-sacks-of-rome-751d3ca892e3.

(11) Aug 27, 410 CE: Sack of Rome - National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/aug27/sack-rome/.

(12) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(13) Sack of Rome (546) - Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. https://infogalactic.com/info/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(14) About: Sack of Rome (546) - DBpedia Association. https://dbpedia.org/page/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(15) Sack of Rome (546) | Military Wiki | Fandom. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(16) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

Alaric-king of the Visigoths.
1920s artistic depiction of Alaric parading through Athens after conquering the city in 395

Who was Alaric

Alaric I was the first king of the Visigoths, who reigned from 395 to 410 AD ¹. He was born in Balti, an aristocratic dynasty, and was a direct descendant of the great chieftain Rothestes ¹⁹. 

Alaric served for a time as commander of Gothic troops in the Roman army, but shortly after the death of the emperor, he became chief of the Tervingi and Greuthungi tribes (later known as the Visigoth and Ostrogoth, respectively) ⁵. 

Alaric relaxing in Athens.

He led his people on a series of campaigns against Rome before finally sacking it in 410 AD ⁴. The sack of Rome in 410 AD was a cataclysmic event that shocked contemporaries, friends, and foes of the Empire alike. 

After several generations of Roman superiority and arrogance, the Visigothic "barbarian" mercenaries reminded their erstwhile masters of where the real military power lay ⁸.

(1) Alaric I - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_I.

(2) Alaric I Biography - Facts, Childhood, Family Life & Achievements. https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/alaric-i-36796.php.

(3) undefined. https://www.worldhistory.org/Alaric/.

(4) 10 Facts About Alaric and the Sack of Rome in 410 AD. https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-alaric-and-the-sack-of-rome-in-410-ad/.

(5) Sack of Rome (546) - Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. https://infogalactic.com/info/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(6) . https://bing.com/search?q=who+was+Alaric.

(7) Alaric | Barbarian King, Visigoth Leader | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alaric.

(8) undefined. https://www.thoughtco.com/alaric-king-of-the-visigoths-116804.

(9) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(10) About: Sack of Rome (546) - DBpedia Association. https://dbpedia.org/page/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(11) Sack of Rome (546) | Military Wiki | Fandom. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(12) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.

(13) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-410.

(14) The Sack of Rome: Its Significance and Who Is to Blame - Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/34933425/The_Sack_of_Rome_Its_Significance_and_Who_Is_to_Blame.

(15) Six Infamous Sacks of Eternal City — Rome - Medium. https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/6-legendary-sacks-of-rome-751d3ca892e3.

(16) Aug 27, 410 CE: Sack of Rome - National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/aug27/sack-rome/.

(17) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-1527.

(18) Sack of Rome (410) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28410%29.

(19) Sack of Rome (1527) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%281527%29.

(20) . https://bing.com/search?q=Alaric+king+of+Visigoths.

(21) Medieval History – Alaric – The King of the Visigoths. https://historymedieval.com/alaric-the-king-of-the-visigoths/.

(22) undefined. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alaric-II.

The Visigothic language

The Visigothic language is an extinct East Germanic language that was spoken by the Visigoths, a Germanic people who migrated into the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries AD ¹.

The language is known primarily from the remains of the translation of the Bible into Gothic that was made by Ulfilas in the 4th century AD ¹. 

The Visigothic language is a variation of Gothic language, which was spoken along the western shore of the Black Sea about the middle of the 4th century AD ¹. 

The Visigoths spoke an eastern Germanic language that was distinct by the 4th century. Eventually, the Gothic language died as a result of contact with other European people during the Middle Ages ³. 

(1) Visigothic | language | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visigothic.

(2) Visigoths - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths.

(3) Gothic language - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_language.

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The Heruli.

The Heruli were an ancient Germanic people who originated from Scandinavia and migrated to various regions of Europe. They were known for their raids and invasions of the Roman Empire, especially in the Balkans and the Aegean Sea. 

They also fought as mercenaries for different rulers and factions. Here is a brief overview of their language, warfare and relation with Rome: 

- Language: The Heruli spoke a Germanic language, but it is not clear which branch of the Germanic family it belonged to. Some of their personal names are similar to Gothic names, suggesting an East Germanic affiliation. ¹ 

The Heruli homeland was probably in
Southern Sweden and the Danish isles.

However, some scholars have proposed that they spoke a North Germanic language, based on their possible Scandinavian origin and some linguistic evidence. 

Unfortunately, there are no surviving texts or inscriptions in the Heruli language, so it is difficult to reconstruct it with certainty.

- Warfare: The Heruli were skilled warriors who excelled in both land and sea combat. They used swords, spears, axes, bows and arrows, and shields. 

They also wore helmets, chain mail, and leather armor. They were known for their speed, agility, and ferocity in battle. They often attacked by surprise, plundering towns and villages, taking captives and slaves, and demanding tribute. 

They also served as mercenaries for various rulers, such as the Huns, the Goths, the Byzantines, and the Lombards. They participated in many wars and conflicts in Europe and Asia Minor, such as the Gothic War (376-382), the Hunnic invasions (441-453), the Fall of Rome (476), the Gothic War (535-554), and the Lombard invasion of Italy (568-569).

- Relation with Rome: The Heruli had a complex and changing relation with Rome. At times they were enemies who raided and invaded Roman provinces, causing devastation and destruction. 

At other times they were allies or subjects who fought for or with Rome against other enemies. They also settled in some Roman territories, such as the Danube region, where they established their own kingdom in the 5th century.

They also converted to Christianity, adopting either the Arian or the Orthodox faith. However, their kingdom was destroyed by the Lombards in the early 6th century, and some of them fled to the Byzantine Empire, where they continued to serve as soldiers or colonists. 

The last mention of the Heruli in history is in the 7th century, when they were assimilated into other peoples or disappeared from the historical record.

The Heruli in Italy.

The Heruli were a Germanic people who originated from Scandinavia and participated in various raids and migrations in the Roman Empire. 

They were involved in several conquests of Italy by different barbarian leaders, such as Odoacer, Theoderic the Great, and Narses. They also had their own kingdom on the Middle Danube for a short time, but it was destroyed by the Lombards. Here is a brief overview of their history in Italy:

- In 476 AD, the Heruli leader Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and became the ruler of Italy. He is considered to be the first barbarian king of Italy and his reign marks the end of the Western Roman Empire. 

He ruled as a client of the Eastern Roman Empire, but also invaded some of its provinces. He was eventually defeated and killed by Theodoric the Great, the king of the Ostrogoths, in 493 AD. 

Odoacer-king of the Sciri and the Heruli.

- In 489 AD, Theodoric the Great invaded Italy with his Ostrogothic army, which included some Heruli as allies. 

He fought against Odoacer for five years until he captured Ravenna, the capital of Italy, and killed Odoacer. He then established the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, which lasted until 553 AD. He was regarded as a wise and tolerant ruler who preserved Roman culture and law. 

- In 535 AD, the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I launched a campaign to reconquer Italy from the Ostrogoths. He sent his general Belisarius, who was accompanied by some Heruli mercenaries, to invade Italy. 

Belisarius captured several cities, including Rome and Ravenna, but faced resistance from the Ostrogoths and their allies. The war lasted for 18 years and devastated Italy. 

It ended with the victory of another Eastern Roman general, Narses, who defeated the last Ostrogothic king, Teia, in 552 AD. Narses then became the governor of Italy and ruled until 568 AD. He also faced invasions from other Germanic tribes, such as the Franks and the Lombards. 

The Heruli disappeared from history around this time, as they were either assimilated into other groups or migrated to other regions. Some scholars have suggested that they may have left some traces in place names or folklore in northern Italy or Scandinavia. 

(1) Heruli - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Heruls.

(2) https://bing.com/search?q=Heruli+in+Italy.

(3) Heruli - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heruli.

(4) Heruli | Gothic Tribe, Migration & Invasion | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Heruli.

(5) Battle of Ravenna (476) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ravenna_%28476%29.

(6) undefined. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/BarbarianHeruli.htm.

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The Marcomanni.

The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe that lived in Central Europe during the Roman era. Their name is believed to mean "border men" or "frontier men" in the Germanic language. They were part of the larger Suebi tribal confederation.

The Marcomanni had their own Germanic language, which is classified as East Germanic. Unfortunately, very little is known about their specific language as it did not survive in written form.

The Marcomanni had several conflicts with the Roman Empire, particularly during the 2nd century AD. The most significant wars were:

1. Marcomannic Wars (166-180 AD): This was a series of wars fought between the Marcomanni and their allies (such as the Quadi) against the Roman Empire under the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Marcomanni, along with other Germanic tribes, launched invasions into Roman territories along the Danube frontier. The war lasted for several years and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Eventually, the Romans were able to repel the invaders and secure their borders.

2. War of 213-217 AD: This conflict occurred during the reign of Emperor Caracalla. The Marcomanni, along with other Germanic tribes, took advantage of the Roman Empire's internal instability and launched another invasion. The war lasted for several years, and although the Romans initially suffered defeats, they eventually managed to regain control and push the invaders back.

These wars marked the Marcomanni as formidable opponents to the Roman Empire and highlighted the constant struggle between the Romans and the Germanic tribes along the Danube frontier.

The Marcomanni language.

Unfortunately, very little has survived of the Marcomanni language. As an East Germanic language, it is not well-documented, and there are no known texts or inscriptions in Marcomanni. The lack of written records makes it challenging to reconstruct or understand the specifics of their language.

However, some linguistic information can be inferred from the names of Marcomanni individuals that have been recorded in Roman sources. These names suggest that the Marcomanni language was likely closely related to other East Germanic languages, such as Gothic.

Additionally, some linguistic features of the Marcomanni language can be inferred from the later Gothic language, which is the most well-documented East Germanic language. By comparing Gothic with other Germanic languages, linguists have been able to make some educated guesses about the linguistic characteristics of the Marcomanni language.

Overall, while we have limited knowledge about the Marcomanni language, it is believed to have been an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic.

Marcomanni warfare.

Unfortunately, very little has survived of the Marcomanni language. As an East Germanic language, it is not well-documented, and there are no known texts or inscriptions in Marcomanni. The lack of written records makes it challenging to reconstruct or understand the specifics of their language.

However, some linguistic information can be inferred from the names of Marcomanni individuals that have been recorded in Roman sources. These names suggest that the Marcomanni language was likely closely related to other East Germanic languages, such as Gothic.

Additionally, some linguistic features of the Marcomanni language can be inferred from the later Gothic language, which is the most well-documented East Germanic language. By comparing Gothic with other Germanic languages, linguists have been able to make some educated guesses about the linguistic characteristics of the Marcomanni language.

Overall, while we have limited knowledge about the Marcomanni language, it is believed to have been an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic.

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The Minoan civilization.

The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age culture that flourished on the island of Crete from approximately 3100 BC to 1100 BC ¹. 

Although the Minoans were not Greek, they have had an instrumental role in shaping the Greek civilization and hence their mention while discussing ancient Greece is a must ³. 

The Minoan civilization developed from the local Neolithic culture around 3100 BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000 BC ¹.

The Minoans constructed enormous buildings which their initial excavators labeled palaces. Subsequent research has shown that they served a variety of religious and economic purposes rather than being royal residences, though their exact role in Minoan society is a matter of continuing debate ¹. 

The ruins of the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos are popular tourist attractions ¹. Minoan art included elaborately decorated pottery, seals, figurines, and colorful frescoes. 

They are believed to have invented true fresco, a technique which results in the pigment becoming part of the wall. Typical subjects include nature and ritual. 

Minoan art is often described as having a fantastical or ecstatic quality, with figures rendered in a manner suggesting motion ¹. 

Little is known about the structure of Minoan society. Social stratification is evidenced by burials and domestic architecture, but Minoan art contains no unambiguous depiction of a monarch, and Egyptian records suggest they may have had some other form of governance. 

Likewise, while some sites seem to have been politically and economically linked, it is not clear whether there was ever a unified Minoan state or states ¹.

(1) Minoan civilization - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization.

(2) Ancient Greek Minoans, Minoan Trade, Minoan Arts. https://ancientgreecefacts.com/greek-minoans/.

(3) Minoan civilization | History, Location, & Facts | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Minoan-civilization.

(4) Minoan civilization - New World Encyclopedia. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Minoan_civilization.

The Minoan language

The Minoan language is the language (or languages) of the ancient Minoan civilization of Crete, which was written in the Cretan hieroglyphs and later in the Linear A syllabary ¹. 

Unfortunately, the Minoan language is unknown and unclassified as the Cretan hieroglyphs are undeciphered and Linear A only partly deciphered ¹. 

It is impossible to be certain that the two scripts record the same language ¹. The Eteocretan language, attested in a few alphabetic inscriptions from Crete 1,000 years later, is possibly a descendant of Minoan, but is also unclassified ¹.

The phonetic system of the Minoan language can be reconstructed to have consonant phonemes such as bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, glottal nasals, stops, fricatives, trills and approximants ¹. 

Brent Davis, a linguist and archaeologist at the University of Melbourne has proposed that the basic word order of the language written in Linear A may be verb-subject-object (VSO), based on the properties of a common formulaic sequence found in Linear A ¹.

(1) Minoan language - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_language.

(2) Minoan language - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Minoan_language.

(3) Linear A - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_A.

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How to learn a foreign language quickly.

Learning a foreign language can be a challenging but rewarding experience. Here are some tips to help you learn a foreign language quickly:

1. Speak the language whenever you can: Don’t be afraid to make mistakes. Speaking the language with native speakers will help you improve your pronunciation and grammar.

2. Read children’s books and comic books in the foreign language: This is a fun way to learn new vocabulary and grammar structures.

3. Consume foreign language media: Watch TV shows, movies, and listen to music in the foreign language. This will help you improve your listening comprehension and vocabulary.

4. Immerse yourself in the local culture: Travel to a country where the language is spoken or attend cultural events in your area.

5. Make use of free foreign language podcasts and apps: There are many free resources available online that can help you learn a new language quickly.

6. Get feedback from native speakers: Don’t practice in isolation. Get feedback from native speakers to improve your pronunciation and grammar.

7. Start with short, simple dialogues: Focus on basic conversations that you might have in everyday life.

8. Focus on comprehensible input: Try to understand the meaning of what you’re reading or hearing, rather than focusing on individual words.

9. Study pronunciation very early on: Good pronunciation is essential for effective communication.

10. Read wisely, not widely: Focus on reading materials that are interesting and relevant to you.

11. Start speaking early: Don’t wait until you feel confident to start speaking the language.

12. Learn one language at a time: Trying to learn multiple languages at once can be overwhelming.

13. Focus on real concentrated study… not cheap hacks: There are no shortcuts to learning a new language quickly, but with dedication and hard work, it is possible 1.

I hope these tips help you achieve your goal of learning a new language quickly!

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At the German gym.

1. Ich gehe ins Fitnessstudio, um mich fit zu halten. (I go to the gym to stay fit.)

- Vocabulary:

  - ins Fitnessstudio gehen: to go to the gym

  - sich fit halten: to stay fit

- Grammar:

  - ich gehe: I go (first person singular present tense of "gehen")

  - um ... zu: in order to

2. Beim Training achte ich immer auf meine Haltung und Atmung. (During my workout, I always pay attention to my posture and breathing.)

- Vocabulary:

  - das Training: the workout

  - auf etwas achten: to pay attention to something

  - die Haltung: the posture

  - die Atmung: the breathing

- Grammar:

  - beim: during the (short form of "bei dem")

  - immer: always

  - meine: my (pronoun in the accusative case)

 

3. Ich mache gerne Krafttraining, um meine Muskeln zu stärken. (I enjoy strength training to strengthen my muscles.)

- Vocabulary:

  - das Krafttraining: the strength training

  - gerne: gladly, enjoy

  - die Muskeln stärken: to strengthen the muscles

- Grammar:

  - gerne: enjoy (adverb)

  - um ... zu: in order to

4. Vor dem Training wärme ich mich immer gut auf, um Verletzungen zu vermeiden. (I always warm up properly before my workout to avoid injuries.)

- Vocabulary:

  - sich aufwärmen: to warm up

  - immer: always

  - gut: well

  - Verletzungen vermeiden: to avoid injuries

- Grammar:

  - Vor dem: before the (short form of "vor dem")

  - mich: myself (reflexive pronoun in the accusative case)

5. Ich gehe regelmäßig ins Fitnessstudio, um meine Ausdauer zu verbessern. (I regularly go to the gym to improve my endurance.)

- Vocabulary:

  - regelmäßig: regularly

  - die Ausdauer: the endurance

  - verbessern: to improve

- Grammar:

  - ich gehe: I go (first person singular present tense of "gehen")

  - um ... zu: in order to

6. Beim Training benutze ich verschiedene Geräte wie Hanteln und Laufbänder. (During my workout, I use different equipment like dumbbells and treadmills.)

- Vocabulary:

  - verschiedene: different

  - das Gerät: the equipment

  - die Hantel: the dumbbell

  - das Laufband: the treadmill

- Grammar:

  - beim: during the (short form of "bei dem")

  - ich benutze: I use (first person singular present tense of "benutzen")

  - wie: like, such as

7. Nach dem Training fühle ich mich immer energiegeladen. (After my workout, I always feel energized.)

- Vocabulary:

  - nach: after

  - fühlen: to feel

  - ich fühle mich: I feel (reflexive verb)

  - immer: always

  - energiegeladen: energized

- Grammar:

  - Nach dem: after the (short form of "nach dem")

8. Das Fitnessstudio bietet auch verschiedene Kurse an, wie zum Beispiel Yoga oder Zumba. (The gym also offers various classes, such as yoga or Zumba.)

- Vocabulary:

  - das Angebot: the offering, the availability

  - der Kurs: the class

  - zum Beispiel: for example

- Grammar:

  - auch: also, too

9. Ich bin Mitglied in einem Fitnessstudio in meiner Nähe. (I am a member of a gym near me.)

- Vocabulary:

  - das Mitglied: the member

  - die Nähe: the vicinity, the vicinity

  - in meiner Nähe: near me

- Grammar:

  - in: in

  - meiner: my (possessive pronoun in the dative case)

10. Beim Training trage ich bequeme Sportkleidung. (During my workout, I wear comfortable sportswear.)

- Vocabulary:

  - tragen: to wear

  - bequem: comfortable

  - die Sportkleidung: the sportswear

- Grammar:

  - beim: during the (short form of "bei dem")

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The Goths and their language.

  Götaland (green)

  The island of Gotland (pink)

  Wielbark culture in the early 3rd century (red)

  Chernyakhov culture, in the early 4th century

  (orange)

  Roman Empire (purple)

The Goths were an East Germanic people who played a significant role in the history of Europe during late antiquity. The Gothic language, which they spoke, is the earliest known Germanic language attested in writing.

The Goths originated in what is now southern Scandinavia and northern Germany. They were known to have migrated southward and settled in various regions, including present-day Poland, Ukraine, and the Baltic states. By the 3rd century, they had divided into two main branches: the Visigoths (Western Goths) and the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths).

Gothic kingdoms 

In the 4th century, the Goths came into contact with the Roman Empire. Initially, they were allies of Rome, serving as foederati (federated troops) and being granted lands within the empire. However, tensions arose, and conflicts between the Goths and the Romans eventually led to the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 AD under the leadership of Alaric I.

The Gothic language.

The Gothic language is primarily known from the Codex Argenteus (Silver Bible), a 6th-century manuscript containing portions of the Bible translated into Gothic. The language shows similarities to other Germanic languages but also displays unique features. The Gothic alphabet, known as the "Gothic script," was an adaptation of the Greek alphabet with some additional characters.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths established a powerful kingdom in Italy under the leadership of Theodoric the Great. Their reign lasted from 493 to 553 AD, when they were defeated by the Byzantine Empire.

Over time, the Goths assimilated into different cultures, and the Gothic language gradually disappeared. By the 9th century, it had become extinct. However, the Gothic people left a lasting impact on European history and played a pivotal role in the transformation of the Roman Empire. Their influence can be seen in various aspects, including architecture, art, and literature.

Excerpt from the Codex Argentum in the Gothic language.

Here is an example of an excerpt from the Codex Argenteus written in Gothic, along with its translation and grammar explanation:

Original Gothic text:

𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍉 𐌱𐌴𐌾𐌿𐌽𐌹 𐌰𐌲𐍂𐌰 𐍃𐌰𐌨𐍂𐍉 𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌹 𐌳𐌹𐌻𐌾 𐌱𐌰𐌹𐌷𐌴𐌹 𐌹𐌰𐌼𐌾𐌹 𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌵𐍉 𐌴𐌽𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍉𐌽 𐌹𐌰𐍄𐍅𐍉𐌼𐌰𐌿𐌳𐍉 𐌱𐍉𐌳𐌾 𐌷𐌹𐌻𐌨𐌴𐌹𐌼𐌾𐌹 𐌴𐌹 𐌲𐌿𐌳𐍅𐌹 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌾𐌰𐌽𐍃 𐌹𐌽 𐌷𐍂𐌳𐌹 𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌾 𐌹𐌾𐌰𐌨𐌽𐌰𐌹 𐍈𐌰𐌲𐌾𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍉 𐌹𐌺𐌹𐌻𐌰 𐍃𐌾𐌿𐌷𐍄𐌹.

Translation:

And they compelled him to carry the cross for Jesus.

Grammar explanation:

- The first word, 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍉 (and) is a coordinating conjunction, connecting two clauses.

- The verb 𐌱𐌴𐌾𐌿𐌽𐌹 (they compelled) is in the past tense, third person plural.

- The word 𐌰𐌲𐍂𐌰 (him) is the accusative singular form of the pronoun 'he.'

- The noun 𐍃𐌰𐌨𐍂𐍉 (cross) is in the accusative singular form.

- The preposition 𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌹 (for) is followed by the genitive form of the noun 𐌳𐌹𐌻𐌾 (Jesus).

- The verb 𐌱𐌰𐌹𐌷𐌴𐌹 (to carry) is an infinitive form.

- The pronoun 𐌹𐌰𐌼𐌾𐌹 (he) is in the accusative singular form.

- The noun 𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌵𐍉 (cross) is in the accusative singular form.

- The verb 𐌴𐌽𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍉𐌽 (to compel) is an infinitive form.

- The pronoun 𐌹𐌰𐍄𐍅𐍉𐌼𐌰𐌿𐌳𐍉 (him) is in the accusative singular form.

- The verb 𐌱𐍉𐌳𐌾 (to carry) is an infinitive form.

- The preposition 𐌷𐌹𐌻𐌨𐌴𐌹𐌼𐌾𐌹 (for) is followed by the genitive form of the pronoun 𐌴𐌹 (him).

- The adjective 𐌲𐌿𐌳𐍅𐌹 (Jesus) is in the genitive singular form.

- The verb 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌾𐌰𐌽𐍃 (to crucify) is an infinitive form.

- The pronoun 𐌹𐌽 (to) is in the accusative singular form.

- The verb 𐌷𐍂𐌳𐌹 (to compel) is in the past tense, third person plural.

- The noun 𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌾 (cross) is in the accusative singular form.

- The pronoun 𐌹𐌾𐌰𐌨𐌽𐌰𐌹 (him) is in the accusative singular form.

- The verb 𐍈𐌰𐌲𐌾𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍉 (to compel) is an infinitive form.

- The pronoun 𐌹𐌺𐌹𐌻𐌰 (he) is in the accusative singular form.

- The noun 𐍃𐌾𐌿𐌷𐍄𐌹 (Jesus) is in the accusative singular form.

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